Child Development Theories - 1324 Words

Child Developmental Theories Ashford University PSY 104 Child and Adolescent Psychology June 29, 2009 Child Developmental Theories While theorists have different ideas and perspectives, insight on child and adolescent development can assist teachers and parents in helping children reach their full developmental and learning potential. Having knowledge about the development of a child and adolescent provides clues in understanding behavior and what is normal, or typical, in growth and development in the early months and years of life. Three developmental theories are broken down to understand the†¦show more content†¦Conventional morality is the second level, reached after age 10. Maintaining mutual relations and getting approval of others, wanting to please and help others happens at stage three. In stage four, an individual begins social concern and having a conscience, and understanding the principles of authority. In level three, post-conventional morality, development is in early adolescence, young adulthood—or never. Stage five of level three describes a person developing, or understanding morality of contract, individual rights, and democratically accepting the law. In this stage, people are aware of principles and think rational deciding between human need and the law. Morality of universal ethical principles is the concept of stage six. Piaget’s Cognitive Development Stage Theory Piaget’s view Jean Piaget’s theory focused on cognitive development as mental operations mature based on â€Å"simple sensory and motor activity to logical, abstract thought† (Papalia, et al., 2006). Piaget’s view was that growth occurs as a child matures and interacts with his or her surroundings; he looks at the human mind as a focal point and base for everything around it (Heffner, 2004). Cognitive development occurs in three interrelated processes, according to Piaget. The interrelated processes are organization, adaptation, andShow MoreRelatedThe Theories Of Child Development2240 Words   |  9 Pagesmain theories of child development and discuss the main principles across all area of development. The assignment will also evaluate an observation conducted on a child and link their behaviour to relevant child development theories. The assignment will firstly highlight some child development theories from behaviourists such as Bandura, humanists such as Maslow and constructivists such as Piaget. Secondly the child’s observation will be discussed and evaluated here relevant link to development theoriesRead MoreThe Theories Of Child Development1084 Words   |  5 Pagesimportant values and beliefs within their culture. All of this provides the foundations for cognitive development. As trainee teachers, it is fundamental that we have a deeper understanding of how children learn and how we can support learning. In order to do this we must first look at some of the theories of learning. Theories Prior to the early 20th century little interest was paid to how a child developed; indeed most early research appears to be based on abnormal childhood behaviour (Oates etRead MoreThe Theory Of Child Development1053 Words   |  5 PagesArt educators that consider theories of child development when creating lesson plans, are more effective. As art educators, we understand that it is our responsibility to educate ourselves on the latest research of art development in order to better serve our educational institutions through providing a quality art education for the future generations of innovators in America. Piaget’s stages of cognitive development stages thoroughly explain the biological transition that occurs in elementary schoolRead MoreThe Theory Of Child Development858 Words   |  4 PagesSocial scientists have given us several theories on child development. There have been three influential theories that have really shaped how we look at the subject. Each one of these theories offers an insightful perspective that has been very influential in how we view child development. The first theory, we will delve into is George Herbert Meads Theory of the Social Self which focused on social interaction with developing human beings. Meads believed that, â€Å"a symbolic interactionist, saw theRead MoreThe Theory Of Child Development2414 Words   |  10 Pagesa sound understanding of theories of child development so they can offer activities that are appropriate for the child’s particular stage of development (Early Education, 2012). This essay will compare and contrast key features of developmental theories by applying them to a particular aspect of child development, the aspect that will be investigated is language acquisition. This essay will consider differing theories of language development such as the behaviourist theory proposed by Skinner (1957)Read MorePiaget Of A Child s Brain Development Theory1057 Words   |  5 Pagesare constantly learning about new theories and expanding the knowledge on those that we already know, about the physical and mental development of Children. Through past and present theorists, we are shown whole new aspects of how a child develops to make up the being that they become. Through Piaget’s ‘Congnitive development theory’ we are shown the stages of a child’s brain development with a strong focus on the ages newborn – 11 years onwards. Piaget’s main theory is that children are able to constructRead MorePsychology : Child Development Theories1094 Words   |  5 PagesPsycho logy: Child Development Theories According to Merriam-Webster, psychology is â€Å"the study of the human mind and its functions†. With psychology, we are able to understand and predict human behavior and overall understand how we think and process the world around us. In this research paper we will be discussing the most known theories of a specific branch of psychology, child development, then I will explain which theory of all I believe is right and why. Developmental psychology is the scientificRead MoreDevelopmental Theories Of Child Development3452 Words   |  14 PagesDevelopmental theory, with Piaget as the most prominent theorist, presents the idea that children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore the world around them. Development is seen to take place in broad stages from birth through to adulthood, with each stage characterized by qualitatively distinct ways of thinking. However, some developmental theorists, in contrast to Piaget, place more emphasis on personal, socia l and emotional development rather than cognitive development and preferRead MoreThe Importance of Theory and Research in Child Development Essay898 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿ The Importance of Theory and Research in Child Development JoLinda Freeman PSY104 Child and Adolescent Development Instructor Mark Kavanaugh April 4, 2015 The Importance of Theory and Research in Child Development In order for us to understand how a child develops we must conduct research on theories that we believe and others believe to be true. When we do understand the development of children we will be able to understand the skills and behaviors of children. This will help usRead MorePiaget s Theory On Child Development920 Words   |  4 PagesChildren are not simply small adults who are still growing; they learn differently and experience the world in a variation of ways that opposes adult reasoning. Piaget’s theory on child development asserts that there are four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Piaget also suggested that human thinking is arranged into schemes, â€Å"organized mental patterns that represent behaviors and actions† (Feldman, 2015, p. 17). These schemes

Essay on Privacy in the Age of Digital Social Media

The usage of digital technology is always increasing, and the people are aware of it, and are aware of various benefits that technology brings to them. They are always connected, able to contact almost anyone from anywhere, and they have access to the biggest source of information in their pockets. But, people seem to forget one thing - how much data technology creates. Facebook statuses, photo albums, videos, tweets - when reminded, most of people will remember these. But they are not the only data created. For example, Facebook stores information about all activities their users do. They store all messages, even deleted ones, they store all information about all logins, they know the times, places, and the devices you logged in from†¦show more content†¦On the analytics side, information about the visits are stored, and on the service side, information about the user accounts are stored. When those two are connected, you get information about the visits and about the users that made them. That does not seem like a big problem. After all, almost always, analytics are outsourced to specialized companies and services, like Google Analytics, and user’s did not leave much personal information on the web. Things started to change in the second half of 2000s. In 2006, Facebook went mainstream. In 2007, the iPhone was released. It was the iPhone that popularized smartphones among the general public. Thanks to Facebook, many people started sharing their full identity online, and thanks to people, Facebook has a big information database about a lot of users’ online activities. When a user registers a profile, he needs to enter his name, e-mail, and a phone number. Phone number is used to confirm that the account is registered by a human, and not a bot programmed to create many accounts that will be used for spam. Most of users connect Facebook to the phone number they are actively using. When users take photos with a smartphone, usually the locat ion on which the picture was taken is stored in the metadata of the photograph. This is possible thanks to the GPS chips that are included in almost all smartphones today. There is a setting based on which the smartphone decides whether or not to store the location in theShow MoreRelatedThe Digital Of Digital Privacy1380 Words   |  6 Pages The term digital privacy can be defined as or explain as by using digital means protecting information of private citizens or business, In these days when people try to explain what is digital privacy mostly they refer to usage of internet or relate with it. This is the technology era, digital privacy is being discussed in related areas, and addressing related issues according in right direction drive towards solution and help to secure more data. Digital privacy focuses and depends on the mediumRead MoreGeneration X, Popularly Known As â€Å"Millennials† By Americans1484 Words   |  6 Pagesniche social problems. Web bloggers have declared Millennials the sole reason for having ruined such complex social issues such as marriage, and the idea of the American dream, to other, not so convoluted problems like the falling sales of bar soap and the increase sales of tree killing novels. However, these bloggers have yet to blame this generation for seemingly their largest offence yet, something that could well, and truly, effect all of mankind throughout the digital age; internet privacy. HavingRead MoreHipaa And The Nurse Anesthesthesia Environment1621 Words   |  7 Pages HIPAA and the Nurse Anesthesthesia Environment Matthew S. Cole University of New England Protecting Patient Health Information in a Digital Era We live in a digital age where everything from photos to important documents is saved or stored online. This includes the use of electronic medical records. The electronic medical record (EMR) is useful in assisting physicians to have a complete and thorough health history of the patient. The EMR serves as a continuity of care from one hospitalRead MoreOnline Technology And Its Effect On Society917 Words   |  4 Pagesthe number of iPhone and Android users on the rise, more effects and options are being added to social media sites that give out more of your information with the purpose of furthering the connection between members and their followers, for example, the ability to add your location onto pictures when they are posted, so viewers can see where you are taking that picture from. Instagram, a social media site for users to upload, edit and share photos with other users, has the latter option (along withRead MoreThe Legal Issue Of Cyberbullying Essay1520 Words   |   7 Pagescommunication technologies (ICTs) with social coaxing and methods such as hacking, and password stealing (Clough. J, 2015) Underage, age, law inadeqqute freedom of speech. Harm. In 2015, New Zealand has enacted the Harmful Digital Act of 2015, the act is a means to regulate cyberbullying. Stated in section 3 of the act, the act is designed to deter, prevent, and mitigate harm caused to individuals by digital communication as well as to provide the victim of harmful digital communications with a quickRead MoreResearch Images Taken From Mobile1015 Words   |  5 Pagesproblems throughout the world today (Reynolds, 2015, Glossary). Nowadays, websites and Social media has become the best medium to share and upload the personal photos. This is good because the photo will remain on these platforms for longer period and can be revisited to see those photos at any time. However, there are security, safety and privacy risks associated with it (â€Å"Photos, videos and social media†, n.d.) Social Networks are the prime targets of the attackers because it contains huge number ofRead MoreA Medium Is Defined As A Major Side Effect On Big Privacy1381 Words   |  6 PagesA medium is defined as â€Å"one of the means or channels of information† (Dictionary.com). In his most famous book Understanding media: The Extensions of Man, Marshall McLuhan said it was the medium itself that shaped and controlled â€Å"the scale and form of human association and action† (1964, p. 9). As an emerging medium, Big Data is pushing us into a new age of compiling and sharing information. It allows us to interpret information in remarkably efficient manners. For example, medical scientistsRead MoreSurveillance And Information Technologies For Administration And Control Processes Essay1191 Words   |  5 PagesSurveillance is ubiquitous in societies that depend on communication and information technologies for administration and control processes (Lyon, 1). Anyone who uses new media are subject to checking, monitoring and scrutinizing; it is near impossible to find an arena free from listening, watching or tracking (Lyon, 2). Some suggest that not doing anything criminal means they ought to have no concerns with or that they are not interesting enough as an individual to be worth surveying (Buettner, 2015)Read MoreThe Impact Of Technology On The Technology Field1421 Words   |  6 Pageschange in the way we as humans communicate would indicate the information age demands parents to be consistently up to date with the latest innovations of technology. Both genders would have to be aware of basic computing knowledge, the home would requir e internet access and parents would be required to be at an above average understanding of word processing. What problems could this potentially bring in a societal context? Privacy issues are already extremely prevalent, recently Apple iCloud was hackedRead MoreThe Censorship Of The Media1665 Words   |  7 Pages Privacy in the Media In addition, the media is in an especially complex situation regarding the current concept of privacy regarding the proper use of technology and due to the numerous ethical issues, that arise from sensationalist media practices. First, the invasion of privacy can be justified by uncovering vital information that serves public interest to be considered ethical journalistic practice (Plaisance, 2014, p. 187). However, while there is less ethical merit in providing the public

Joyce and John Cheever were two influential writers of the late 1800s and early 1900s Essay Example For Students

Joyce and John Cheever were two influential writers of the late 1800s and early 1900s Essay Joyce and John Cheever were two influential writers of the late 1800s and early 1900s. James Joyce was an Irish author that wrote various short stories, novels, and poems. In Dubliners, he is noted for his epiphanies and objective correlatives. John Cheever, is an American short-story writer and novelist whose work is known for his portrayals of the average middle-class American. His works include ironic comedies and the displaying of his imagination. Both writers are duly noted for their short stories. Their unique styles of writings are respectably different to a point. They are similar in the way they display their descriptions, and differ in the way they present the outcome of their story. In the short stories of James Joyce, one is surely to notice his direct and sharp epiphanies. In the story An Encounter, two schoolboys of 11 or 12, decided to skip school. There was a third but he bailed. They arranged to go along the Wharf Road until they came to the ships. Then they were to cross with the ferryboat and walk out to see the Pigeon House. When they reached the quay, the boy narrating the story, looked amongst the sailors by the Norwegian Vessel to see if any of them had green eyes, I came back and examined the foreign sailors to see had any of them green eyes for I had some confused notion. p. 23. He had a great interest in people with green eyes, for he saw them as erotic, and thought they possessed great auras. He was disappointed to find none. The boys continued on their walk, reaching the Pigeon House, when greeted by an old man. The way he talked and the things he talked about scared the boys, and therefore led them to conclude that he was just a queer old man. While the man was talking he began to get this great sentimentality in his voice and the one boy looked up at him, As I did so I met the gaze of a pair of bottle-green eyes peering at me from under a twitching forehead p. 27. The epiphany shown here is rather drastic, for the boy has a loss of innocence. He always had the perceived notion that men with green eyes were rather amazing. This old man disproved his theory and led the boy to disappointment. Epiphanies like these make the reader go oh ah as they read on. A noticeable factor in Joyces works, are his descriptions of Dublin and its characters. In A Little Cloud, Little Chandler gives great descriptions of the things he sees. By doing so, we are exposed to vast imagery that helps us in getting the mood of the story, He turned often from his tiresome writing to gaze out of the office window. The glow of a late autumn sunset covered the grass plots and walks. It cast a shower of kindly golden dust on the untidy nurses and decrepit old men who drowsed on the benches p. 71. This particular scene gives a mood of the story right away. Following this observation he shows us the condition of the character, A gentle melancholy took possession of him p. 71. This disposition presented puts you in the characters frame of mind, which Joyce did by exposing us to the characters feelings with a sense of reality. John Cheevers writings are described, often through fantasy and ironic comedy, the life, manners, and morals of middle-class, suburban America. Cheevers work often portrays individuals who yearn for self-expression within a society whose values make it difficult to achieve this freedom. .u385f8de23c05ef91996f8ef059a0d7d1 , .u385f8de23c05ef91996f8ef059a0d7d1 .postImageUrl , .u385f8de23c05ef91996f8ef059a0d7d1 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u385f8de23c05ef91996f8ef059a0d7d1 , .u385f8de23c05ef91996f8ef059a0d7d1:hover , .u385f8de23c05ef91996f8ef059a0d7d1:visited , .u385f8de23c05ef91996f8ef059a0d7d1:active { border:0!important; } .u385f8de23c05ef91996f8ef059a0d7d1 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u385f8de23c05ef91996f8ef059a0d7d1 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u385f8de23c05ef91996f8ef059a0d7d1:active , .u385f8de23c05ef91996f8ef059a0d7d1:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u385f8de23c05ef91996f8ef059a0d7d1 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u385f8de23c05ef91996f8ef059a0d7d1 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u385f8de23c05ef91996f8ef059a0d7d1 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u385f8de23c05ef91996f8ef059a0d7d1 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u385f8de23c05ef91996f8ef059a0d7d1:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u385f8de23c05ef91996f8ef059a0d7d1 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u385f8de23c05ef91996f8ef059a0d7d1 .u385f8de23c05ef91996f8ef059a0d7d1-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u385f8de23c05ef91996f8ef059a0d7d1:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Arthur Miller And Individualism EssayA chief example of his ironic comedies is O Youth and Beauty. Cash Bentley is the main character, whose yearning for his youth and self expression. His yearning leads to the flaunting of his track skills, by hurdling furniture during parties. This gives him a chance to show the youth still in him. During one of his performances he injures himself and is very disappointed. Cash recovers and begins his habit once again. One night he begins moving the furniture in his house and tells his wife to fire the pistol for him to begin. While telling her about the safety on the gun, his impatience drove him to begin his hurdling before she figured it out. He hurdled the sofa anyhow. The pistol went off and Louise got him in midair. She shot him dead p. 218. The irony in this is great because his wife was very against violence. When giving her children Life magazines, she would scan the articles and cut out any mayhem, disaster, and violent death shown in them. This story was actually funny to some of us and its clearly seen why its an ironic comedy. Cheevers descriptions like Joyces can include objective correlatives, although not to the extreme of which Joyce uses. For example, in The Enormous Radio, Cheevers gives the description of one main character in the story, He wore his graying hair cut very short, he dressed in the kind of clothes his class had worn at Andover, and his manner, was earnest, vehement, and intentionally na?ve p. 33. This like Joyce gives you a good idea about the character but also includes a significant point in the personality of the character. The fact that the character, Jim Westcott, is intentionally na?ve is shown specifically in the story. He chooses to ignore his financial and family problems, and does so by telling his wife that everything is alright, and that their family is nothing like the ones she hears on the radio. Another big point of description Cheever always points out is how average his characters are. Jim and Irene Westcott, previously mentioned, are described with this tone, Jim and Irene Westcott were the kind of people who seem to strike that satisfactory average of income, endeavor, and respectability that is reached by the statistical reports in college alumni bulletins p. 33. He always goes into detail of how average they are by presenting a statistic, went to the theatre, on an average of 10. 3 times a year p. 33. He does this only to go on and give the prime examples of the lives and general behaviors of the average American and their morals. When looking at these two writers we obviously see unique writing styles, for they are both different. They use the same skills; description, originality, and imagination, and create two different types of writing styles. Cheever used his imagination and created characters which may already exist in the world, for they are average. Joyce also used his imagination to collaborate on a place, which he already knew, Dublin. The main character usually had some representation of himself that showed his stream of consciousness. Both writers are similar in that they always have concrete conclusions to their stories, but differ in the way in which they show them. Joyce shocks us with his epiphanies and Cheever does the same with his ironies. The ways in which they present their denouements are different and make for the differences in their writings.

Gendering Of Contraception Essay Research Paper Would free essay sample

Gendering Of Contraception Essay, Research Paper Would you wish to be on the having terminal of a snakeskin rubber? Work force and adult females have been utilizing birth control for 1000s of old ages. Typically though if you look to the yesteryear there has been a large difference in how and why contraceptive method was used for the opposite sexes. Focus on existent birth control in history was chiefly up to the adult female, while work forces # 8217 ; s contraceptive method was focused on forestalling disease. This can be taken back to one of the earliest known utilizations of the rubber. Roman soldiers used fleece rubbers non to forestall gestation but to contend disease. Documentation of the Chinese on the other manus shows that 4000 old ages ago adult female in the civilization were imbibing quicksilver to forestall gestation. This is a go oning tendency. Findingss in the yesteryear non merely show that there was a difference in the usage of contraceptive method between the sexes but there was besides a distinguishable comfort ability degree of the devices themselves. We will write a custom essay sample on Gendering Of Contraception Essay Research Paper Would or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page One illustration you can happen of this is Casanova # 8217 ; s usage of a linen rubber, non stating that its comfort ability compares to male rubbers of today, but most would happen it more soothing than a female device of the clip deemed the # 8220 ; box # 8221 ; . Ladies of the clip period would infix the # 8220 ; box # 8221 ; , a 6-sided con caved wooden object, inside their vagina trusting to barricade whatever seeds might seek to get away. Acerate leaf to state the â€Å"box† was declared a anguish device and its usage was stopped. Even to this twenty-four hours contraceptive method has been more focussed on the female. When you think of possible male contraceptive method techniques merely three exist, a 4th hormonal technique being in development. The three include usage of the rubber, backdown, and vasectomy. On the other manus when u expression at what options the female has the list is legion. A few being gelatins, female rubbers, diaphragms, intrauterine devices, rubbers, birth control pills, and barriers. The ground for this? It is perchance society # 8217 ; s mentality on females as being the birth giver and therefore being seen as the 1 who should command birth. Or it may perchance be the mentality on the power of the male phallus, it being a tool for # 8220 ; seting the seed # 8221 ; . In any instance Contraception throughout history up until this twenty-four hours has been flooded with inequalities. Bibliography hypertext transfer protocol: //www.spub.ksu.edu/ISSUES/v101/sp/n098/opinion/opn.louk.2-18.html hypertext transfer protocol: //www.salon.com/07/features/contra.html hypertext transfer protocol: //rintintin.colorado.edu/~mcck/ hypertext transfer protocol: //desires.com/1.6/Sex/Museum/museum1.html

Southern Gothic Characteristics Flashcard

Southern Gothic Characteristics

Pompeys Wives

Pompey's Wives Pompey the Great appears to have been a faithful and passionate husband. His marriages, however, were probably made for political convenience. In his longest lasting marriage, he sired three children. Two of his other marriages ended when Pompeys wives died in childbirth. The final marriage ended when Pompey himself was killed. Antistia Antistia was the daughter of a praetor named Antistius whom Pompey impressed when he defended himself before the praetor against a charge of possession of stolen property in 86 B.C. The praetor offered Pompey his daughter in marriage. Pompey accepted. Later, Antistias father was killed because of his connection with Pompey; in her grief, Antistias mother committed suicide. Aemilia In 82 B.C., Sulla persuaded Pompey to divorce Antistia in order to remarry his stepdaughter, Aemilia. At the time, Aemilia was pregnant by her husband, M. Acilius Glabrio. She was reluctant to marry Pompey but did so anyway and soon died in childbirth. Mucia Q. Mucius Scaevola was the father of Pompeys 3rd wife, Mucia, whom he married in 79 B.C. Their marriage lasted until 62 B.C., during which time they had a daughter, Pompeia, and two sons, Gnaeus and Sextus. Pompey eventually divorced Mucia. Asconius, Plutarch, and Suetonius say Mucia was unfaithful with Suetonius alone specifying the paramour as Caesar. However, it isnt clear why exactly Pompey divorced Mucia. Julia In 59 B.C. Pompey married the much younger daughter of Caesar, Julia, who was already engaged to Q. Servilius Caepio. Caepio was unhappy so Pompey offered him his own daughter Pompeia. Julia miscarried a few days after she had fainted in shock at seeing blood-stained clothing that made her fear her husband had been killed. In 54 B.C., Julia was pregnant again. She died in childbirth as she gave birth to a daughter who lasted only a few days. Cornelia Pompeys fifth wife was Cornelia, daughter of Metellus Scipio and widow of Publius Crassus. She was young enough to have been married to his sons, but the marriage appears to have been a loving one like the one with Julia. During the civil war, Cornelia stayed on Lesbos. Pompey joined her there and from there they went to Egypt where Pompey was killed. Source:The Five Wives of Pompey the Great, by Shelley P. Haley. Greece Rome, 2nd Ser., Vol. 32, No. 1. (Apr. , 1985), pp. 49-59.

The traditional model of public administration Essay

The traditional model of public administration - Essay Example The characteristics of this bureaucratic state were set out most clearly by the German sociologist Max Weber in 1920, with strong echoes of earlier writings by the American Woodrow Wilson (Hughes, 1998): Further refinement of the traditional model of public administration came through the application of private sector based ideas of 'scientific management', which introduced efficient operational methods based on standardization of tasks, 'one best way' of fitting workers to tasks, and systematic control of tasks, processes, and workers (Hughes, 1998,33-34). These principles were easily adapted to bureaucratic structures. A final addition to the traditional model was the application of the insights of social psychology, in a 'human relations' approach which is often contrasted with the scientific management approach, but in practice sought to achieve greater efficiency of performance too, though by paying attention to the need to motivate workers rather than merely control and direct them (Hughes, 1998, 35-6). Unfortunately,Unfortunately, the ideal bureaucracy model had never happened in the real life. The critique of the traditional model is based in a comparison of the 'ideal' model of bureaucracy with what happens in real systems of public administration. The following differences can be identified: i. In many systems there is no clear separation between policy and administration, either in terms of decision-making processes or the respective roles of administrators and politicians, which are often fused together. ii. Decision-making processes do not, in any case, conform to the rules of technical and economic rationality, but are affected and shaped by processes of conflict, negotiation and exchange between interests both internal and external to the state bureaucracy iii. Hierarchy and centralization combine with a formal, sometimes slavish adherence to rules and procedures to produce defects (or bureaucratic